Characteristics Of Fractals And Fractal Dimensions Engineering Essay

Characteristics Of Fractals And Fractal Dimensions Engineering Essay According to Benoit B. Mandelbrot, fractal is considered that object or structure that consists of fragments with variable orientation and size but of similar appearance. This feature gives the fractal some special geometric properties the length and the relationship between surface area and volume. These special properties do need other s different mathematical tools to explain the common characteristics. In the human body there are structures with fractal geometry, such as vascular system, the bronchial ramifications, the neural network, the arrangement of the glands, etc. The importance of this fractal geometry in the body is to optimize the role of systems because in a small space with the largest area. Since there are structures with fractal geometry we deduce that should be possible phenomena with fractal characteristics to power these phenomena have constantly repeating patterns at different timescales. These phenomena can be characterized with the use of mathematical tools of fractal geometry. Niels Fabian Helge von Koch said, Fractal theory can be considered a valid and useful tool for studying dynamic phenomena in the human body or in nature and allows an approach more in keeping with the complexity and nonlinearity existing in these processes. The fractal dimension is a mathematical index that we calculate and that allows us to quantify the characteristics of fractal objects or phenomena. This index can be calculated in several ways. One of these ways of calculating fractal dimension is the Hurst exponent. The concept of dimension that we use is usually the classical Euclidean, is that one dimension is a line, form a flat two-dimensional and three-dimensional object form a volume. However, an irregular line tends to form a surface and a surface bends when it becomes a volume, as we can, starting a one-dimensional object, passing the same object in three dimensions. Many natural structures have these characteristics so that, geometrically, these structures may have a non integer dimension between 2 and 3. Thus the fractal dimension is an index that allows us to quantify the geometric properties of objects with fractal geometry. The phenomena with fractal behavior can be represented by line graphs, and these graphics can measure their fractal dimension and thus to quantify the complexity of chaotic dynamics. Regarding the relationship between fractals and chaos, we could truly say that fractals are the graphic representation of chaos. Delving a bit on the subject and based on the ideas of Carlos Sabino we could say that the relationship between chaos and fractals is that fractals are geometric figures with a certain pattern that is repeated endlessly as a multiple scales and if the close look reveals that this pattern is found in the components, and parts of its components, and component parts of its components, and so on to infinity. This we can see if we can observe the fractal at different scales smaller and smaller. Fractals of which is said not to have full dimension represent graphically that chaotic equations can be solved. Fractals show us that points of a given mathematical space collapsed the chaotic solutions of our equation. The most curious part of this is that both the equations and fractals can be constructed with elements that we have all seen in our past academia, but the results obtained can become an incredibly high complexity. This can be considered a way of life Fractal Characteristics In broad terms we can define a fractal as a geometric figure with a very complex and detailed structure at all scales. Already in the nineteenth century many figures were designed with these characteristics but were not considered beyond simple mathematical curiosities and rarities. However, in the seventies of last century, their study is closely linked to development studies on chaos. As noted above, the fractals are basically the graphical representation of chaos, but also have a number of characteristics that then we will try to enumerate. First, we must consider that they are still fractal geometric figures, but do not meet its definition and it is impossible through traditional concepts and methods in place since Euclid. However, the above statement is very far from becoming rare or anomalous figures, as a glance around us can perceive the lack of Euclidean forms ideal, a feeling which will increase greatly if we find in nature. In fact, we will be surprised a lot when we stumble across, for example, with a spherical stone. Consequently, while always trying to apply to reality, Euclidean shapes (circles, squares, cubes ) are limited to the field of our mind and the pure mathematical abstraction. On the contrary, as we shall see, fractals are widespread. Like when we speak of chaos, one of the most significant properties of fractals and which is particularly striking is the fact that originates from some initial conditions or very basic rules that will lead to extremely complex shapes, seemingly diabolical. A clear example is the Cantor set, because it originates simply part of a line segment, we divide it into three parts and remove the core and so on. Another key feature of the concept of fractal self-similarity is This idea in a broader sense and philosophy has attracted since the beginning of mans humanity. Jonathan Swift partly reflected in his book  Gullivers Travels  when he conceived the idea of the existence of tiny men, the  midgets, and giants, all with similar morphology but a quite different scale. Of course, this is very attractive and even romantic, but rejects the science for a long time. However, the advances of this century that unveiled some resemblance of an atom with electrons orbiting around the nucleus and the solar system with the Sun and its planets rehabilitated to some extent the concept. In the particular case of fractals, is viewed as a fractal object every time we change the scale, shows a clear resemblance to the previous image. Therefore, we can define the self-similarity as symmetry within a scale, in other words fractals are recurrent. This is evident in figures like the Koch curve, in which each extension results in an exact copy of the picture above. But to illustrate in a general way, we can see the coastline of Europe. In principle, we may consider Europe as a peninsula of Asia Moreover, within Europe there are large peninsulas and the Balkans and if we reduce the scale, we found other small and the Peloponnese peninsula and we can continue to differentiate between incoming and outgoing calls between the grains sand from the beach. However, this self-similarity should not be confused with an absolute identity between scales, for example, following the previous example, is not that smaller peninsulas have a way exactly like the majors. Rather, what this idea implies the existence of an infinite complexity of fractal figures since, given its recurrence, we will be extending its image over and over again to infinity without the appearance of a completely defined. In fact, these extensions will be revealing an increasingly complex network and seemingly inexplicable. For example, we take a seemingly smooth surface but if we extend it, the microscope will show hillocks and valleys that will be more abrupt increases as we use more. But this discovery leads us to a more difficult question, what is the size of a fractal? This same question was asked in his article Mandelbrot  How long is the coast of Britain?  In which he proposes the concept of fractal dimension. According to Euclids geometry, we move in a three-dimensional as to place a point on the plane we need three coordinates (height, width and depth). Similarly, a plane has two dimensions, the straight one and point zero. However, if we take, for example, the Koch curve is assumed to belong to a one-dimensional world, we will see as their length varies depending on the  ruler  that we use and, therefore, it is impossible to calculate exactly. Clearly, neither is it a plane because as its name suggests is a curve as it is within the plane. Consequently, it is considered that its size must be halfway between one and two. This approach may seem a simple mathematical juggling, since this unit the size of the unit of measure and, ultimately, of the relativity of the reference point of the observer escapes hands. However, it is very useful because, as shown in the following pages can be calculated and, therefore, serves to balance characteristics of fractal objects and their degree of ruggedness, discontinuity or irregularity. This also means that it is considered that this degree of irregularity is constant at different scales, which has been shown many times appearing incredibly regular and irregular patterns of behavior in the complete disorder. CALCULATION OF FRACTAL DIMENSIONS As I mentioned above, we defined the concept of fractal dimension as one that does not fit, traditionally considered since the time of Euclid: size 0, item; dimension 1, the line, and so on. But this concept is not only theoretical but can be calculated as we will show below. Anyway, we should not forget that we start with a subjective idea, as it is to ascertain and quantify the fractal occupies the space where you are. If we take a figure whose fractal dimension is between one and two as, for example, the coastline, the result of its length will depend on the length of the ruler we use, for example the unit of measurement. Therefore, if we get this unit to be infinitely small we can measure with great accuracy.Now, based on this simple idea, it will be easier to understand the following mathematical development: Denote a complete metric space and (X, d), where is a nonempty compact subset of X. whereas take B (x,) as areas  closed  to radio and with center at a point xX. We define an integer, N (A,) that is the least necessary number of areas  closed  to radio we need to cover all A.. This would be: N (A,) = The smallest positive integer so that AÃÅ' ÈMn=1 B(xn, e) For a set of distinct points (xn, 1, 2, 3, , M). To know that this number exists, surround all the points x A with an area  open  to radio > 0 to cover A with joint  open.  Since A is compact, this cover has a finite sub cover, which is an integer, which call M . If  we close  these areas, we get a cover M of closed mats. We call C the set of covers of A with a maximum of M areas  closed  to radio. Therefore, C contains at least one item. Now, lets f:C à   {1, 2, 3,,M } as f (c) which is equal to the number of areas on deck c C. Then, {f(c): cÃŽC} is a finite set of positive integers. Consequently, this set will contain a smaller number, N (A,). Intuitive idea behind fractal dimension, based on the assumption that A has a fractal dimension D if N(A, e)  » Ce -D where C is a positive constant. Interpret » so that f ( ) and g () are real functions of real positive variable. Then, f(e)  » g(e) Means that . Solving for D we get: Given that time tends to zero, we get the term also tends to zero we arrive at the following definition: Be AÃŽH(X), and (X, d) is a metric space. For each e>0 let N (A, e) And lower number of area  closed  to radio?> 0 needed to cover A. If: Exists, then D is the fractal dimension of A. Also denoted as D = D (A) and reads A has fractal dimension D Examples: We can recreate this set a very simple way: we take a line and divide it into three equal segments, eliminating the middle and replaced by two segments of a length equal to one third of the original line thus obtaining four segments, this is continued to infinity. K E N 0 1 1 1 1 / 3 4 2 1 / 9 16 K K = number of interactions required E = size measuring instrument N = Number of times used E Its size is calculated using the following formula: And which leads to: Thus see that the dimension of the Koch curve has a dimension that is between the 1st and the 2nd and is 1.2618. The main and most known representative of fractals is the Mandelbrot set. For many experts it is by far the most complex object of all sciences. It is amazing to observe its infinite complexity, which is certainly beyond description. And this complexity is multiplied at every scale clusters appear endless, peninsulas, islands really are not, spirals, etc. No matter how scaling up or how many times you give to the zoom button, the display will appear more and more figures infinitely complicated. Of course it looks like a diabolical invention capable of driving the sanest. The Mandelbrot set is a series of complex numbers that satisfy a certain mathematical property. Each issue is composed of a real and an imaginary part represented by i, which is equal to the square root of -1, as follows: 2 + 3i. So take a number and either C squared. We add the number obtained C and back to be squared and continue over and over again with the same process: z z2 + C. Applications of Fractals Although they may seem simple figures created to entertain mathematicians, there are many applications of fractals, both theoretically and practically. Given the broad scope of its application field, then we will limit to list the most striking and, so to speak, which are more spectacular. Since then, its application in the field of abstract science has been really great. One of its most immediate applications is the study of solutions of systems of equations over the second degree. In fact, early in the study of fractals, John Hubbard, American mathematician, in a plane represent the way the Newton method for solving equations, leads from different starting points for each of the solutions. Previously it was thought that each solution will have a basin of attraction that would divide the map in several places and points of which lead to the solution. However, by computer scanning and assigning a color to each watershed, Hubbard found that the boundaries of these regions of the plane were not well defined in any way. Within these limits was a color points into other points of color and as the grid of numbers was more complex was going to expand revealing the border. In fact, could be considered as there was no such border. Although there are many applications in areas as diverse as physics and seismology, since then the area where more applications have been found in image processing. In fact, rather than inputs, should speak of a revolution. Michael Barnsley was the pioneer in the treatment of images from its so-called fractal transformation. This is the opposite process to the formation of a fractal, for example instead of creating a figure from certain rules; we search for rules that form a specific figure. Currently, fractals are used to compress digital images so that they occupy less space and can be transmitted at higher speed and lower cost; in addition, they are very useful when creating spectacular special effects blockbusters, because it is relatively easy to create all types of landscapes and funds through fractals. So simple that with a small computer program that occupies a small space, you can create a beautiful tree from a simple scheme. Similarly, the fractal revolution affects the world of music, as it is very widespread use of fractal procedures for the composition, especially techno music or rhythmic foundation for any other type of music. Furthermore, the concept of fractal dimension and have had great impact in the field of biology. On the other hand, one can see great examples of fractal structures in the human body as the network of veins and arteries. From a large blood vessel and the aorta come out smaller vessels until the appearance of very fine hair so as to cover as much space as possible to carry nutrients to cells. Furthermore, it is believed to guess a certain similarity between the generation of fractals and the genetic code, since in both cases from very limited information apparently complex structures arise.

Pie 123

1. External  economies  of  scale  arise  when  the  cost  per  unit A. rises  as  the  industry  grows  larger. B. falls  as  the  industry  grows  larger  rises  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. C. falls  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. D. remains  constant. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 2. Internal  economies  of  scale  arise  when  the  cost  per  unit A. rises  as  the  industry  grows  larger. B. falls  as  the  industry  grows  larger. C. rises  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. D. falls  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 3. External  economies  of  scale A. ay  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. B. cannot  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. C. tends  to  result  in  one  huge   monopoly. D. tends  to  result  in  large  profits  for  each  firm. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 4. Internal  economies  of  scale A. may  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. B. cannot  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. C. are  associated  only  with  sophisticated  products  such  as  aircraft. D. cannot  form  the  basis  for  international  trade  . E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 5. A  monopolistic  firm A. an  sell  as  much  as  it  wants  for  any  price  it  determines  in  the  market. B. cannot  determine  the  price,  which  is  determined  by  consumer  demand. C. will  never  sell  a  product  whose  demand  is  inelastic  at  the  quantity  sold. D. cannot  sell  additional  quantity  unless  it  raises  the  price  on  eac h  unit. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  C 7 6. Monopolistic  competition  is  associated  with A. cut-throat  price  competition. B. product  differentiation. C. explicit  consideration  at  firm  level  of  the  feedback  effects  of  other  firms' pricing  decisions. D. high  profit  margins. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 29.Two  countries  engaged  in  trade  in  products  with  no  scale  economies,  produced under  conditions  of  perfect  competition,  are  likely  to  be  engaged  in A. monopolistic  competition. B. inter-industry  trade. C. intra-industry  trade. D. Heckscher-Ohlin  trade. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 19. A  monopoly  firm  engaged  in  international  trade  will A. equate  average  to  local  costs. B. equate  marginal  costs  with  foreign  marginal  revenues. C. equate  marginal  costsà ‚  with  the  highest  price  the  market  will  bear. D. equate  marginal  costs  with  marginal  revenues  in  both  domestic  and  in foreign  markets. E. None  of  the  above.Answer:  D 9. Where  there  are  economies  of  scale,  the  scale  of  production  possible  in  a  country is  constrained  by A. the  size  of  the  country. B. the  size  of  the  trading  partner's  country. C. the  size  of  the  domestic  market. D. the  size  of  the  domestic  plus  the  foreign  market. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D Brown field : , Green field : 21. A  firm  in  monopolistic  competition A. earns  positive  monopoly  profits  because  each  sells  a  differentiated product. B. earns  positive  oligopoly  profits  because  each  firm  sells  a  differentiated product.C. earns  zero  econ omic  profits  because  it  is  in  perfectly  or  pure  competition. D. earns  zero  economic  profits  because  of  free  entry. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 16. International  trade  based  on  scale  economies  is  likely  to  be  associated  with A. Ricardian  comparative  advantage. B. comparative  advantage  associated  with  Heckscher-Ohlin  factor- proportions. C. comparative  advantage  based  on  quality  and  service. D. comparative  advantage  based  on  diminishing  returns. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  E ———————————————Ch7———————————————- . The  effective  rate  of  protection  measures A. the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"true†Ã‚  ad  valorum  v alue  of  a  tariff. B. the  quota  equivalent  value  of  a  tariff. C. the  efficiency  with  which  the  tariff  is  collected  at  the  customhouse. D. the  protection  given  by  the  tariff  to  domestic  value  added. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 1. Specific  tariffs  are A. import  taxes  stated  in  specific  legal  statutes. B. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fixed  charge  for  each  unit  of  imported  goods. C. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fraction  of  the  value  of  the  imported  goods. D. the  same  as  import  quotas. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B . Ad  valorem  tariffs  are A. import  taxes  stated  in  ads  in  industry  publications. B. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fixed  charge  for  each  unit  of  imported  goods. A. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fraction  of  the  value  of  the  imported  goods. B. the  same  as  import  quotas C. None  of  the  above. Answer:  C The  main  redistribution  effect  of  a  tariff  is  the  transfer  of  income  from A. domestic  producers  to  domestic  buyers. B. domestic  buyers  to  domestic  producers. C. domestic  producers  to  domestic  government. D. domestic  government  to  domestic  consumers. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 21.Which  of  the  following  policies  permits  a  specified  quantity  of  goods  to  be imported  at  one  tariff  rate  and  a  higher  tariff  rate  to  imports  above  this  quantity? A. Import  tariff B. Voluntary  exports  restraint C. Tariff  quota D. Ad  valorum  tariff E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  C 22. Should  the  home  country  be  Ã¢â‚¬Å"large†Ã‚  relative  to  its  trade  partners,  its  imposition  of a  tariff  on  imports  would  lead  to  an  increase  in  domestic  welfare  if  the  terms  of the  trade  rectangle  exceed  the  sum  of  the A. revenue  effect  plus  redistribution  effect. B. protective  effect  plus  revenue  effect. C. consumption  effect  plus  redistribution  effect.D. protective  distortion  effect  plus  consumption  distortion  effect. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D An import quota: Is always more costly to a country than an import tariff. Has the same effects on welfare as an import tariff. Generates rents that might go to foreigners. Is always less costly to a country than an import tariff. -> -> ? ? ——————————-Ch9————————————à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- 27. The  imperfect  capital  market  justification  for  infant  industry  promotion A. Assumes  that  new  industries  will  tend  to  have  low  profits. B.Assumes  that  infant  industries  will  soon  mature. C. Assumes  that  infant  industries  will  be  in  products  of  comparative advantage. D. Assumes  that  banks  can  allocate  resources  efficiently. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 2. Sophisticated  theoretical  arguments  supporting  import-substitution  policies include A. Terms  of  trade  effects. B. Scale  economy  arguments. C. Learning  curve  considerations. D. The  problem  of  appropriability. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 14. Which  industrialization  policy  used  by  developing  countries  places  emphasis  on the  comparative  advantage  principle  as  a  guide  to  resource  allocation? A. Export  promotion.B. Import  substitution. C. International  commodity  agreements. D. Infant  Industry  promotion. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 1. The  infant  industry  argument  was  an  important  theoretical  basis  for A. Neo-colonialist  theory  of  international  exploitation. B. Import  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  substituting  industrialization. C. Historiography  of  the  industrial  revolution  in  Western  Europe. D. East-Asian  miracle. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 6. The  wage  differential  theory  which  argued  that  shifting  resources  from  agriculture to  manufacturing  entailed  positive  social  benefits  implied  that A. Free  trade  policies  would  promote  competitiveness. B.Free  trade  policies  would  promote  economic  growth  for  both  static  and dynamic  reasons. C. Protectionism  was  likel y  to  lead  to  economic  stagnation. D. Protectionism  and  import  substitution  was  likely  to  promote  economic growth. Answer:  D 12. Which  trade  strategy  have  developing  countries  used  to  restrict  imports  of manufactured  goods  so  that  the  domestic  market  is  preserved  for  home  producers, who  thus  can  take  over  markets  already  established  in  the  country? A. International  commodity  agreement. B. Export  promotion. C. Multilateral  contract. D. Import  substitution. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 18. Import  substitution  policies  make  use  ofA. Tariffs  that  discourage  goods  from  entering  a  country. B. Quotas  applied  to  goods  that  are  shipped  abroad. C. Production  subsidies  granted  to  industries  with  comparative  advantage. D. Tax  breaks  granted  to  i ndustries  with  comparative  advantage. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 25. The  infant  industry  argument  is  that A. Comparative  advantage  is  irrelevant  to  economic  growth B. Developing  countries  have  a  comparative  advantage  in  agricultural  goods. C. Developing  countries  have  a  comparative  advantage  in  manufacturing. D. Developing  countries  have  a  potential  comparative  advantage  in manufacturing. E. None  of  the  above.Answer:  D 26. The  infant  industry  argument  calls  for  active  government  involvement A. Only  if  the  government  forecasts  are  accurate. B. Only  if  some  market  failure  can  be  identified. C. Only  if  the  industry  is  not  one  already  dominated  by  industrial  countries. D. Only  if  the  industry  has  a  high  value  added. E. None  of  t he  above. Answer:  B 30. Import  substitution  policies  have  over  time  tended  to  involve  all  but  the  following A. Overlapping  import  quotas. B. Exchange  controls. C. Domestic  content  rules. D. Simple  tariffs. E. Multiple  exchange  rate  schemes. Answer:  D 35. The  HPAE  (High  Performance  Asian  Economies)  countriesA. Have  all  consistently  supported  free  trade  policies. B. Have  all  consistently  maintained  import-substitution  policies. C. Have  all  consistently  maintained  non-biased  efficient  free  capital  markets . D. Have  all  maintained  openness  to  international  trade. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D ================================ch11========================== 1. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  incomeà ‚  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  Pakistan  and India  fall  under? A.Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Pakistan  and  India  fall  between  lower-middle  and  upper-middle Answer:  A 2. While  many  developing  countries  have  reformed  their  economies  in  order  to imitate  the  success  of  the  successful  industrial  economies,  the  process  remains incomplete  and  most  developing  countries  tend  to  be  characterized  by  all  of  the following  except: A. Seigniorage B. Control  of  capital  movements  by  limiting  foreign  exchange  transactions connected  with  trade  in  assets. C. Use  of  natural  resources  or  agricultural  commodities  as  an  important  share of  expo rts.D. A  worse  job  of  directing  savings  toward  their  most  efficient  investment uses. E. Reduced  corruption  and  poverty  due  to  limited  underground  markets. Answer:  E 4. Compared  with  industrialized  economies,  most  developing  countries  are  poor  in the  factors  of  production  essential  to  modern  industry:  These  factors  are A. capital  and  skilled  labor B. capital  and  unskilled  labor C. fertile  land  and  unskilled  labor D. fertile  land  and  skilled  labor E. water  and  capital Answer:  A 5. The  main  factors  that  discourage  investment  in  capital  and  skills  in  developing countries  are: A. olitical  instability,  insecure  property  rights B. political  instability,  insecure  property  rights,  misguided  economic  policies C. political  instability,  misguided  economicà ‚  policies D. political  instability E. insecure  property  rights,  misguided  economic  policies Answer:  B 6. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  sub-Saharan Africa  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E.Sub-Saharan  Africa  falls  between  lower-middle  and  upper-middle Answer:  A 7. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  mainland China  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income Answer:  B 8. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies.What  category  would  the  smaller Latin  American  and  Caribbean  countries  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Smaller  Latin  American  and  Caribbean  countries  fall  between  low  income and  lower  middle  income Answer:  D 9. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  the  Saudi Arabia  falls  under? A. Low-income B.Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Saudi  Arabia  falls  between  low  income  and  lower  middle  income economies Answer:  B 10. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  the  Turkey falls  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Turkey  falls  between  low  income  and  lower  middle  income  economiesAnswer:  B 11. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  uppe r middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  the  Poland, Hungary,  and  the  Czech  and  Slovak  Republics  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Poland,  Hungary,  and  the  Czech  and  Slovak  Republics  fall  between  low income  and  lower  middle  income  economies Answer:  B Pie 123 1. External  economies  of  scale  arise  when  the  cost  per  unit A. rises  as  the  industry  grows  larger. B. falls  as  the  industry  grows  larger  rises  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. C. falls  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. D. remains  constant. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 2. Internal  economies  of  scale  arise  when  the  cost  per  unit A. rises  as  the  industry  grows  larger. B. falls  as  the  industry  grows  larger. C. rises  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. D. falls  as  the  average  firm  grows  larger. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 3. External  economies  of  scale A. ay  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. B. cannot  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. C. tends  to  result  in  one  huge   monopoly. D. tends  to  result  in  large  profits  for  each  firm. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 4. Internal  economies  of  scale A. may  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. B. cannot  be  associated  with  a  perfectly  competitive  industry. C. are  associated  only  with  sophisticated  products  such  as  aircraft. D. cannot  form  the  basis  for  international  trade  . E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 5. A  monopolistic  firm A. an  sell  as  much  as  it  wants  for  any  price  it  determines  in  the  market. B. cannot  determine  the  price,  which  is  determined  by  consumer  demand. C. will  never  sell  a  product  whose  demand  is  inelastic  at  the  quantity  sold. D. cannot  sell  additional  quantity  unless  it  raises  the  price  on  eac h  unit. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  C 7 6. Monopolistic  competition  is  associated  with A. cut-throat  price  competition. B. product  differentiation. C. explicit  consideration  at  firm  level  of  the  feedback  effects  of  other  firms' pricing  decisions. D. high  profit  margins. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 29.Two  countries  engaged  in  trade  in  products  with  no  scale  economies,  produced under  conditions  of  perfect  competition,  are  likely  to  be  engaged  in A. monopolistic  competition. B. inter-industry  trade. C. intra-industry  trade. D. Heckscher-Ohlin  trade. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 19. A  monopoly  firm  engaged  in  international  trade  will A. equate  average  to  local  costs. B. equate  marginal  costs  with  foreign  marginal  revenues. C. equate  marginal  costsà ‚  with  the  highest  price  the  market  will  bear. D. equate  marginal  costs  with  marginal  revenues  in  both  domestic  and  in foreign  markets. E. None  of  the  above.Answer:  D 9. Where  there  are  economies  of  scale,  the  scale  of  production  possible  in  a  country is  constrained  by A. the  size  of  the  country. B. the  size  of  the  trading  partner's  country. C. the  size  of  the  domestic  market. D. the  size  of  the  domestic  plus  the  foreign  market. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D Brown field : , Green field : 21. A  firm  in  monopolistic  competition A. earns  positive  monopoly  profits  because  each  sells  a  differentiated product. B. earns  positive  oligopoly  profits  because  each  firm  sells  a  differentiated product.C. earns  zero  econ omic  profits  because  it  is  in  perfectly  or  pure  competition. D. earns  zero  economic  profits  because  of  free  entry. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 16. International  trade  based  on  scale  economies  is  likely  to  be  associated  with A. Ricardian  comparative  advantage. B. comparative  advantage  associated  with  Heckscher-Ohlin  factor- proportions. C. comparative  advantage  based  on  quality  and  service. D. comparative  advantage  based  on  diminishing  returns. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  E ———————————————Ch7———————————————- . The  effective  rate  of  protection  measures A. the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"true†Ã‚  ad  valorum  v alue  of  a  tariff. B. the  quota  equivalent  value  of  a  tariff. C. the  efficiency  with  which  the  tariff  is  collected  at  the  customhouse. D. the  protection  given  by  the  tariff  to  domestic  value  added. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 1. Specific  tariffs  are A. import  taxes  stated  in  specific  legal  statutes. B. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fixed  charge  for  each  unit  of  imported  goods. C. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fraction  of  the  value  of  the  imported  goods. D. the  same  as  import  quotas. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B . Ad  valorem  tariffs  are A. import  taxes  stated  in  ads  in  industry  publications. B. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fixed  charge  for  each  unit  of  imported  goods. A. import  taxes  calculated  as  a  fraction  of  the  value  of  the  imported  goods. B. the  same  as  import  quotas C. None  of  the  above. Answer:  C The  main  redistribution  effect  of  a  tariff  is  the  transfer  of  income  from A. domestic  producers  to  domestic  buyers. B. domestic  buyers  to  domestic  producers. C. domestic  producers  to  domestic  government. D. domestic  government  to  domestic  consumers. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 21.Which  of  the  following  policies  permits  a  specified  quantity  of  goods  to  be imported  at  one  tariff  rate  and  a  higher  tariff  rate  to  imports  above  this  quantity? A. Import  tariff B. Voluntary  exports  restraint C. Tariff  quota D. Ad  valorum  tariff E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  C 22. Should  the  home  country  be  Ã¢â‚¬Å"large†Ã‚  relative  to  its  trade  partners,  its  imposition  of a  tariff  on  imports  would  lead  to  an  increase  in  domestic  welfare  if  the  terms  of the  trade  rectangle  exceed  the  sum  of  the A. revenue  effect  plus  redistribution  effect. B. protective  effect  plus  revenue  effect. C. consumption  effect  plus  redistribution  effect.D. protective  distortion  effect  plus  consumption  distortion  effect. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D An import quota: Is always more costly to a country than an import tariff. Has the same effects on welfare as an import tariff. Generates rents that might go to foreigners. Is always less costly to a country than an import tariff. -> -> ? ? ——————————-Ch9————————————à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- 27. The  imperfect  capital  market  justification  for  infant  industry  promotion A. Assumes  that  new  industries  will  tend  to  have  low  profits. B.Assumes  that  infant  industries  will  soon  mature. C. Assumes  that  infant  industries  will  be  in  products  of  comparative advantage. D. Assumes  that  banks  can  allocate  resources  efficiently. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 2. Sophisticated  theoretical  arguments  supporting  import-substitution  policies include A. Terms  of  trade  effects. B. Scale  economy  arguments. C. Learning  curve  considerations. D. The  problem  of  appropriability. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 14. Which  industrialization  policy  used  by  developing  countries  places  emphasis  on the  comparative  advantage  principle  as  a  guide  to  resource  allocation? A. Export  promotion.B. Import  substitution. C. International  commodity  agreements. D. Infant  Industry  promotion. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 1. The  infant  industry  argument  was  an  important  theoretical  basis  for A. Neo-colonialist  theory  of  international  exploitation. B. Import  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  substituting  industrialization. C. Historiography  of  the  industrial  revolution  in  Western  Europe. D. East-Asian  miracle. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  B 6. The  wage  differential  theory  which  argued  that  shifting  resources  from  agriculture to  manufacturing  entailed  positive  social  benefits  implied  that A. Free  trade  policies  would  promote  competitiveness. B.Free  trade  policies  would  promote  economic  growth  for  both  static  and dynamic  reasons. C. Protectionism  was  likel y  to  lead  to  economic  stagnation. D. Protectionism  and  import  substitution  was  likely  to  promote  economic growth. Answer:  D 12. Which  trade  strategy  have  developing  countries  used  to  restrict  imports  of manufactured  goods  so  that  the  domestic  market  is  preserved  for  home  producers, who  thus  can  take  over  markets  already  established  in  the  country? A. International  commodity  agreement. B. Export  promotion. C. Multilateral  contract. D. Import  substitution. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D 18. Import  substitution  policies  make  use  ofA. Tariffs  that  discourage  goods  from  entering  a  country. B. Quotas  applied  to  goods  that  are  shipped  abroad. C. Production  subsidies  granted  to  industries  with  comparative  advantage. D. Tax  breaks  granted  to  i ndustries  with  comparative  advantage. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  A 25. The  infant  industry  argument  is  that A. Comparative  advantage  is  irrelevant  to  economic  growth B. Developing  countries  have  a  comparative  advantage  in  agricultural  goods. C. Developing  countries  have  a  comparative  advantage  in  manufacturing. D. Developing  countries  have  a  potential  comparative  advantage  in manufacturing. E. None  of  the  above.Answer:  D 26. The  infant  industry  argument  calls  for  active  government  involvement A. Only  if  the  government  forecasts  are  accurate. B. Only  if  some  market  failure  can  be  identified. C. Only  if  the  industry  is  not  one  already  dominated  by  industrial  countries. D. Only  if  the  industry  has  a  high  value  added. E. None  of  t he  above. Answer:  B 30. Import  substitution  policies  have  over  time  tended  to  involve  all  but  the  following A. Overlapping  import  quotas. B. Exchange  controls. C. Domestic  content  rules. D. Simple  tariffs. E. Multiple  exchange  rate  schemes. Answer:  D 35. The  HPAE  (High  Performance  Asian  Economies)  countriesA. Have  all  consistently  supported  free  trade  policies. B. Have  all  consistently  maintained  import-substitution  policies. C. Have  all  consistently  maintained  non-biased  efficient  free  capital  markets . D. Have  all  maintained  openness  to  international  trade. E. None  of  the  above. Answer:  D ================================ch11========================== 1. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  incomeà ‚  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  Pakistan  and India  fall  under? A.Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Pakistan  and  India  fall  between  lower-middle  and  upper-middle Answer:  A 2. While  many  developing  countries  have  reformed  their  economies  in  order  to imitate  the  success  of  the  successful  industrial  economies,  the  process  remains incomplete  and  most  developing  countries  tend  to  be  characterized  by  all  of  the following  except: A. Seigniorage B. Control  of  capital  movements  by  limiting  foreign  exchange  transactions connected  with  trade  in  assets. C. Use  of  natural  resources  or  agricultural  commodities  as  an  important  share of  expo rts.D. A  worse  job  of  directing  savings  toward  their  most  efficient  investment uses. E. Reduced  corruption  and  poverty  due  to  limited  underground  markets. Answer:  E 4. Compared  with  industrialized  economies,  most  developing  countries  are  poor  in the  factors  of  production  essential  to  modern  industry:  These  factors  are A. capital  and  skilled  labor B. capital  and  unskilled  labor C. fertile  land  and  unskilled  labor D. fertile  land  and  skilled  labor E. water  and  capital Answer:  A 5. The  main  factors  that  discourage  investment  in  capital  and  skills  in  developing countries  are: A. olitical  instability,  insecure  property  rights B. political  instability,  insecure  property  rights,  misguided  economic  policies C. political  instability,  misguided  economicà ‚  policies D. political  instability E. insecure  property  rights,  misguided  economic  policies Answer:  B 6. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  sub-Saharan Africa  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E.Sub-Saharan  Africa  falls  between  lower-middle  and  upper-middle Answer:  A 7. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  mainland China  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income Answer:  B 8. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies.What  category  would  the  smaller Latin  American  and  Caribbean  countries  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Smaller  Latin  American  and  Caribbean  countries  fall  between  low  income and  lower  middle  income Answer:  D 9. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  the  Saudi Arabia  falls  under? A. Low-income B.Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Saudi  Arabia  falls  between  low  income  and  lower  middle  income economies Answer:  B 10. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  upper middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  the  Turkey falls  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Turkey  falls  between  low  income  and  lower  middle  income  economiesAnswer:  B 11. The  world’s  economies  can  be  divided  into  four  main  categories  according  to their  annual  per-capita  income  levels:  low-income,  lower  middle-income,  uppe r middle-  income  and  high-income  economies. What  category  would  the  Poland, Hungary,  and  the  Czech  and  Slovak  Republics  fall  under? A. Low-income B. Upper  middle-  income C. High-income D. Lower  middle-income E. Poland,  Hungary,  and  the  Czech  and  Slovak  Republics  fall  between  low income  and  lower  middle  income  economies Answer:  B

National University Essay

American students have different attitudes about studying Contents 1. Tallahassee Democrat, Flag. Tallahassee Democrat, Flag. BY Quit Lie One and a half years ago, when my husband came to Florida State University for his doctorate in oceanography, I accompanied him from China. When I first stepped on American soil, many American things deeply attracted me. Since enrolling at the community college for my associates degree, I have especially noticed the differences between Chinese and American attitudes toward studying. Many of my American lacerates are also Curious about societal, family and educational systems in China. Expressing my ideas about the effects of these systems on college students in China may help my friends here understand the differences between us. China is a big country, not only in its land but also in its tremendous population. Although the government spends a huge amount of funds on developing education every year, It still can’t satisfy the innumerable students who are seeking knowledge. Thus,unlike in America, where everybody can go to college, a lot of Chinese students do not have the opportunity to study at colleges. For example, the government has a policy that people must be under 25 years of age to be able to go to college. Also, students must pass an annual National University Entrance Exam, which Is very strict. Often, only one out of 10 students pass It. The students call this testing month ‘ ‘ Dark July,† implying that this exam decides their fate. Not only do the students regard it as important, but also their parent’s treat It seriously. In America, students can decide to go to college by themselves and their parent’s hardly Interfere with them. In China, old, traditional thoughts are still kept In people’s minds. They think that studying at allege Is an Incomparable honor. If a student Is enrolled In college, his or her parent’s are extremely happy. They will Immediately tell all their relatives and friends. But If a student doesn’t pass the entrance exam, his parent’s will feel as If they cannot raise their heads In front of others. Some parent’s will even blame their child for not studying hard enough. These common views make some students feel pressure on their hearts. By comparison, American students leave their parent’s earlier and live and work In society by themselves. Most Chinese students never leave their parent’s before they go to college. This dependent life makes them want to obey their parent’s’ advice about everything. Prenatal advice Is their mall Influence. Some parent’s Insist that their child attend the July exam year after year until he or she passes It. The Influence of the family Is very Important on students In China. When I first came to college here, the American laissez-fairer style of education deeply Interested me. American colleges give students broad space and allow students to develop Independently. Students can freely choose their favorite courses, except for certain required courses. They can even choose their favorite teachers. This Is Incredible to e. In China, the field of study can’t be changed from the first day that the students come to college. Furthermore, every semester the school has already formulated the limits their development. At the community college, I also observe that quite a number of students cut class without excuses. This behavior is really strange. In China, even if a student is sick, he will normally persist in attending classes. Although the school has strict rules for absent students, the majority of students think that they should take responsibility for their own education. Chinese students study very hard and treasure the opportunity to study. Everyone wants to get the highest score. In China, there are no part-time students in a university. Tuition is provided by parent’s, so students want to get the highest scores to repay their parent’s’ love. Unlike American students who have a lot of chances to get a good Job, when Chinese students graduate, their grades become a major factor for a good company to choose them. To get a good Job in the future, students must study hard. Obviously, compared with the American educational system, the Chinese educational system could be improved by giving students more freedom to develop their abilities based n their interests.

The Effects Of Sexual Abuse On Adolescents And Adults

Aiden grew up within a dysfunctional family system where his parents were unable to provide a safe and nurturing environment for him. The parents had a violate relationship and were emotionally and physically abusing their child. Aiden received negative messages throughout his childhood and adolescent years and this in turn became a self-fulfilling prophecy. Intervention strategies throughout his life span could have altered the course of the school shooting. Childhood Experiences Aiden experienced emotional abuse from his father throughout his childhood. Kent and Waller (1998 p393) argues† that emotional abuse is the â€Å"core† issue in childhood trauma.† The impact of this abuse is related to psychological instabilities in adolescents and adults. Aiden was given messages such as, â€Å"Stop Crying and â€Å"you are an embarrassment you a loser.† He was also traumatized when he was grabbed by his collar of his clothes and dragged into his room. 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